6. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PRODUCTION – I

 

(i)Vegetable & Fruit Cookery

Vegetable

Vegetables are of great important in our diet and especially with regard to the present trend when the people are shifting towards the vegetarian side. These play a very important role in our diet properly choose, properly cooked or raw. They make an invaluable contribution towards the supply of vitamins and minerals. Whenever possible, we should serve two vegetable in our diet also salads should be given the importance and hence must be made in both the meals. Generally vegetables have high water content, which ranges from 70-90%.

The various components of vegetables are:

1. Carbohydrates: carbohydrates are present in the form of starch, sugar, cellulose & pectin substances. Starch is the chief nutrients of roots & tubers & the content of sugar is highest in beetroot, carrots & turnips. Cellulose is a source of roughage and become coarse & tough with age.

2. Minerals and vitamins: also the vegetable contain minerals and vitamins.

There are certain elements in the vegetable which do not have a food value but constitute an important part of vegetable.

A. Flavouring substances: many volatile and non-volatile acids contributed to the flavour.

B. Pigments: four pigments are in the vegetables:

i. Chlorophyll: it is present in all green coloured vegetables such as cabbage, spinach, green beans, broccoli, peas etc.
ii. Carotenoids: it is present in orange coloured vegetables such as carrots, pumpkins, sweet potatoes, corns, tomatoes etc
iii. Flavons: it is present in white coloured vegetables such as cauliflower, turnips, potatoes, onion etc.
iv. Anthocyanins: it is present in red & purple coloured vegetables. Beet roots, red cabbage (not tomatoes).

C. tannins: tannins are the complex organic compounds which are widely distributed in plants. They are responsible for astringent (sharp flavour) properties. Tannin is also responsible for discolouration in vegetable when they are cut or cooked.

Vegetable classification
Vegetable can be classified into two different categories i.e. Those grow below the soil & which grow above the soil.

                                                       
Underground:

a) Roots: carrots, raddish, beetroot & turnips.
b) Tubers: potato, yam, artichoke, sweet potato, jerusalem.
c) Bulbs: onions, garlic, leeks, shallots.

Above the soil:

a) Leaves: cabbage, spinach, water crest, mustard leaves.
b) Flowers: cauliflower, broccoli, globe artichoke.
c) Pods: green peas, beans, okra.
d) Stems: celery, asparagus, seakale.
e) Fungi: mushrooms.

Reasons for which vegetables are cooked

I. To soften the product.
II. To improve the flavour.
III. To increase the digestibility.
IV. To preserve the vegetables.

Effects of heat on vegetables

Various changes due to heat on vegetables are:

• Cellulose: it disintegrates, becomes soft, mastication is facilitated.
• Flavour: over cooking specially effects the flavour and a covered pan generally increases the intensity of the flavour.
• Pigments: so many changes occur in the pigments and generally it results in the loss of colour.
• Proteins: they are coagulated by heat.
• Carbohydrates: they get softened by the gelatinization of the starch.
• Vitamins: vitamin c is lost in heat whereas other vitamins are heat stable.

 Various rules for vegetable preparation

1. Do not let the vegetable soak in water unless necessary.

2. Wash the vegetables just before peeling.

3. Cook or bake the vegetable in their skin.

4. Use the minimum amount of liquid during boiling.

5. Use the water in which the vegetables are boiled (pot liquor).

6. Use the correct cooking medium which can be acidic, alkali or neutral.

7. Cut the vegetable as near to the cooking time as possible.

8. Serve the food as soon as it is ready for the service.

9. Keep the oxygen away from the vitamin rich foods by covering them with water.

10. For uniform doneness, cut into uniform sizes before cooking.

11. If vegetable must be cooked in advance, slightly undercook them, cool rapidly in cold water, drain and refrigerate, then reheat to order.

Shelf life: leafy vegetables : 2 days

Root vegetables : 2-3 days

Tubers : 1 week

Bulbs : 2 weeks

Suggestive cooking for different vegetables

Boiling: this is the most common method of cooking vegetables. For green vegetables such as peas, french beans etc. The vegetables are put in boiling water and cooked for minimum time possible and refresh to avoid over cooking. Green vegetables while boiling should not be covered; otherwise their colour will be changed to olive green. Root vegetables should be placed in cold water and the pot should be covered by a lid, the water is brought to boiling point then simmered till the vegetables are cooked. This method is good for

Steaming: vegetables are cut into even size after washing and placed in steamer for cooking. This method helps in the maximum preservation of the nutrients and good for peas, beans, cauliflower, cabbage etc.

Braising: vegetables after blanching are laid on aromatic to be braised such as cabbage, onion etc.

Baking: vegetables baked in baking oven suitable for potatoes, tomatoes, pimentos etc.

Roasting: some vegetables can be roasted. They are placed in a hot pan containing oil and condiments suitable for potatoes, onions and parsnips etc.

Shallow frying: it is applicable for mushrooms, onions, pepper, tomatoes etc.

Deep frying: vegetables such as potatoes, brinjals and onions can be deep fried but loss of vitamins takes place in this method of cooking.

Grilling: small potatoes can be grilled to give colour.

Stewing: vegetables such as marrows, peas etc. Can be stewed.

Actions of acids and alkalis

Pigment or colour	Salt or  neutral	Acidic medium	Alkali medium	Over cooking
Flavons (white)	Yellowish	White	Yellow	Grey
Anthocyanins (red)	Faded red	Bright red	Blue	Green
Carotenoids (orange, yellow)	Fades	Same	Loss of nutrients	Fades
Chlorophyll  (green)	Bright green	Olive green	Bright but mushy	Faded olive green

Standard vegetables cuts

1) Brunoise: vegetables are cut into fine dices.
2) Macedoine: vegetables are cut into ½ cm dices.
3) Julienne: vegetables are cut into very thin strips (1 ½ ˝ long).
4) Jardinière: vegetables are cut into baton shape (1˝ x ¼ ˝ x ¼ ˝).
5) Paysanne: vegetables are cut into small triangles, circles and squares- uniform shape.
6) Wedges: tomato or lemon cut into four or six pieces.
7) Mirepoix: vegetables mixed (onions, carrots, celery, leeks) cut into rough dices.

FRUITS

Fruits are pulpy in character, often juicy & generally developed from flowers of plants & consist of a ripened seed or seeds with some edible tissues attached.

Types of fruits

Type of fruit	Main characteristics	E.g.	Uses
Stoned fruits	These have got a single prominent seed present in the middle.	Apricots, cherries, peaches, plums.	Used in jams, pies, puddings and sweet dishes.
Hard fruits	These have got hard layer of fibers & generally firm when touched.	Apple, pears etc.	Used in pastries, apples are  used for garnishing meat dishes, salads, sauces etc., waldrof salad, apple sauce serve with roast meat etc.
Soft fruits	These have got soft layer of fibers and should be handled very carefully.	Black & red  currants, berries etc.	Generally stewed and are used in pies and puddings. Also used for jams and as flavouring
Citrus fruits	These are the fruits which have got acids present in them.	Lemons, limes, oranges etc.	They are not cooked usually but are generally used for flavouring and garnishing purposes. They are used to prepare fruit salad.
Tropical fruits	These generally grow in the hot region where the temperatures might sore upto 50ºc	Guavas, bananas, dates, figs, mango, papaya, pineapple, litchis etc.	They are used to prepare fruit salad, flavouring and garnishing. Mango used for jams
Other fruits	These are the fruits which do not fall into any category given above.	Cranberries, melons, grapes etc.	They are used to prepare fruit salad, flavouring and garnishing.

Storage of fruits

• Hard fruits such apples should be stored in boxes
• Soft fruits such as strawberries, raspberries should be left in their own punnets.
• Stoned fruit are stored in a tray and must be individually placed so that any damaged fruit can be discarded easily.
• Peaches and citrus fruits are left in the delivery tray only.
• Bananas should not be stored in cool places because their skin turns black.

 Quality and purchasing points for fruits

• Soft fruits should not be damaged or overripe.
• Soft fruits should appear fresh without signs of mould, witting and shrinkage.
• Certain fruits are purchased on the basis of appearance such as strawberries, cherries etc.
• Hard fruits should not be bruised.

Salads

A salad is derived from the italian word “insalata”. Insalata means a dish steeped in salt or brine solution. Salads are made up of meat, poultry, fish, game, shellfish, eggs, vegetables, fruit and milk products and normally serve cold. They can be made out of single ingredients or a combination of ingredients. Salads are generally served as an accompaniment to a dish but can be served as a course itself, an appetizer, sweet course (fruit salad).

The salad comprises of four parts:

1. The under liner or base: these are generally greens either shredded or in large pieces. The greens must be crisp and chilled. This can be done by storing them in refrigerator. E.g. Lettuce leaves, cabbage leaves, watercress leaves etc. The main purpose is to keep the plate or bowl from looking bare and to provide contrast colour to the other parts of the salad.

2. The body or heart of the salad: this is the major component and can be made of one ingredient or a combination of ingredients. Ingredient should be fresh. Body constituents are the major portion of the salad. The salad gets its name from the ingredients that are used for the body.

3. Garnish: the purpose of garnish is to give eye appeal to the salad, though it often adds to the flavour as well. It should not be elaborate or dominate the salad. Garnish should harmonize with the rest of the salad ingredients and, be edible. Any of the fruit and vegetable, cut into simple, appropriate shapes, may be used as garnish.

4. Dressings: these make the salad more appetizing, although diet conscious people today eat salad without dressing. Various kinds of dressing are used in the preparation of salad depending upon the kind of salad to be made. It adds flavour, provides food value, helps in digestion and improves palatability and appearance. A dressing is in a liquid or semi liquid form.

Salad dressings:

A. Vinaigrette can be made by three ways:-

 I. French: 3 parts oil 1 part vinegar, french mustard and seasoning.

II. English: 1 part oil 2 parts vinegar, mustard and seasoning.

 III. American: equal quantities of vinegar and oil, seasoning and sugar.

B. Lemon dressing: same as vinaigrette dressing using lemon juice instead of vinegar.

C. Acidulated cream: 3 parts cream 1 part vinegar and seasoning.

D. Mayonnaise

E. Thousand island dressing: mayonnaise, hard boiled eggs, tomato ketchup, chopped gherkins, chopped onions, pimentos, olives and paprika powder.

F. Russian dressing: mayonnaise, chilly sauce, horseradish, minced onion.

G. Roquefort dressing: French dressing with cheese.

H. Piquant dressing: French dressing, dry mustard, chopped onion and paprika powder.

I. Anchovy dressing: french dressing with chopped anchovies.

J. Honey lemon dressing: honey with lemon juice.

Salads are of two types:

I. Simple salad: generally consist of a single kind of vegetable one or two ingredients are used for garnish.

Examples:

• Celery salad: chopped celery with vinaigrette.
• Cabbage salad: shredded cabbage with vinaigrette.
• Cucumber salad: cucumber roundels with vinaigrette.
• Potato salad: dice/ roundels (parboiled) with vinaigrette or mayonnaise.
• Tomato salad: sliced tomato with parley and vinaigrette.

 II. Compound salad:

 These are elaborate salads consisting of more than one ingredient which are sub divided into four groups:

• Vegetable based: coleslaw, andalouse, nicoise, aida.
• Poultry, game, meat based: carmen, hongroise, bagration.
• Fish based: parisienne, fish mayonnaise, favourite.
• fruit based: creole, japonnaise, dalila, eve, waldrof

6.(ii)STOCK

Definition of a stock: A stock is a liquid that has been formed by extracting flavors, nutrients and salts during the cooking process from bones, vegetables and aromatic herbs.


• Clear in appearance

• Delicate flavor

• Clear of grease

• The basic ingredient for most soups and sauces is a good stock and this is why a stockpot should be maintained in every kitchen. Stock is obtained by simmering bones and selected vegetables in water to extract their flavor. The preparation of the basic stock is not a difficult process and although weights and measures are given in the recipes that follow, such quantities should be regarded as flexible, permitting variations within fairly broad limits. The kitchens stockpot should not be misused and made into a receptacle for every kind of trimming and leftover.

• Fat, which derives from skimming, is an important by-product. It should always be retained and clarified for first grade dripping. Bones that have boiled for more than six hours are of no further value and should be washed, dried and disposed of as salvage. It is important to note that nay stock remaining at the end of the day should be reboiled, cooled within 90 minutes and stored in the refrigerator or cold area.


The 7 principles of stock making:

1. Cold water: Cover the ingredients with clean, cold water. Starting in this manner allows the blood and proteins to dissolve. As the temperature rises, the proteins coagulate (solidify) and float to the surface where they can be skimmed off. If they were started in hot water, the proteins would solidify, stick to the bones and then disperse into the stock making it cloudy and "muddy tasting".

2. Simmer, never boil: A stock should be brought to a boil and then immediately reduced to a simmer. (approximately 185 f) at a simmer, the ingredients release the maximum flavor without breaking down into particulate matter. If a stock boils for even a few minutes, the fat will emulsify into the stock and the stock will become cloudy, making for a poor performance, a "muddy taste" and a "greasy" finish. This type of texture will spoil soups and sauces.

3. Skim frequently: Skimming the coagulated masses off the surface of the stock throughout the cooking process, decreases the likelihood of "clouding" the stock.

4. Strain carefully: This involves a china cap set inside of a chinois. In order to use the stock, you must separate the solids from the liquid. While doing so it is important not to disturb the solids in the bottom of the pot.

Use the following procedure:

1. Skim the fat from the surface

2. Remove the stock from the heat and carefully ladle the stock out of the pot without stirring the stock.

3. Pour the stock through a china cap set inside of a chinois, into a sanitized metal container.



5. Cool quickly: It is of the utmost importance that stocks are cooled quickly and with a minimum amount of agitation.

6. Store properly: 1. Store in a plastic storage container and label the container indicating the contents, date and the session that started the stock. (Ex: 1 dec. /intro am /vegetable barley soup)

  2. Store in the container in the refrigerator. (as the stock chills the remaining fat will rise and solidify, forming the fat cap. The fat cap provides an extra barrier against contamination and aerobic bacterial growth.)

7. Degrease: Before using the stock, carefully lift the fat cap off of the surface of the stock, scraping off all the small bits of fat. It is always easier to degrease your stock when it is chilled. All preparations depend on the use of fat-free stocks!

Type of stocks

• White beef stock white stocks should have no color and sometimes use a white mirepoix where carrots are replaced by parsnips and leeks replace half the onions. Blanching the bones is also common. Blanch by bringing bones and water just to the boil then skim the surface and discard the water.

• Brown beef stockbrown stocks rely on good color. To achieve this color the bones and mirepoix are caramelized (caramelization is the browning of surface sugars and occurs around 310° ) if the color is not right a onion burlee, (burnt onion), is used to darken the stock.

• Vegetable stock

• Chicken stock

• Fish stock

STORAGE OF STOCKS.

When cooked stocks must be strained and cooled within 90 minutes and stored in a fridge, stocks can be frozen.

All stocks must be re-boiled after storage prior to being used.


RECIPES

WHITE STOCKS
Beef bones 2.5 kg
Carrots 250 g
Bouquet garni. 1 small
Leeks 120 g
Water 8 ltr
Onions 120 g
Celery 60 g

1. Cut bones into 4in/10cm lengths, remove any marrow fat and place bones into a saucepan.

2. Cover with cold water and bring to the boil, skim and simmer for 4 hours.

3. Add the peeled whole vegetables and bouquet garni and allow simmering for a further 2 hours.
4. Make a final skimming to remove excess fat.

5. Pass the liquid through a fine cloth into a clean pot. Return to the stove and reboil.

BROWN STOCKS
Beef bones 2.4 kg
Carrots 120 g
Beef Fat A little to brown the bones
Leeks 60 g
Onions 120 g
Peppercorns
Water 7 ltr
Celery 60 g


1. Cut bones into 4in / 10cm pieces and brown in the hot oven.

2. Place them in a stockpot and cover with the water or stock.

3. Bring to the boil and skim and cook for two hours.

4. Cut the vegetables into large dice (mirepoix), shallow fry until well brown and add to the stock.

5. Add the remaining ingredients and simmer for four hours.

6. Skim and strain and use as required.


CHICKEN STOCK

Chicken bones 3 kg
Water 6 ltr
Leeks 100 g
Onion studded 150 g
Carrots 200 g
Bouquet garni.
Peppercorns (white)
Salt 10 g


1. Place the bone into a suitable pan and add the water and bring to the boil.

2. Skim as required.

3. Add the peeled whole vegetables, bouquet garni and peppercorns and allow simmering for two hours.

4. Remove any scum and pass the stock through a fine strainer or muslin.


GAME STOCK

Game bones 3 kg
Water 7 ltr
Carrots 200 g
Onions 120 g
Leeks 100 g
Celery 25 g
Peppercorns
Bouquet garni
Oil as required

Method

1. Cook as for brown stock cooking for three hours only. Skim and use as required.



FISH STOCK

Fish bones 1 kg
(sole, plaice, whiting, turbot)
Water 1.5 ltr
Onions 150 g
Butter 5 g
Peppercorns
Bouquet garni
Juice of lemon

1. Peel and shred the onions.

2. Place the margarine, onions and bones into a pan with a lid and cook until the essence has been extracted, about five minutes.

3. Add the remaining ingredients and bring to the boil. Skim and simmer for 20 minutes. Strain through a fine strainer or muslin. Reboil and cool.

USE OF STOCKS-Stocks are nutritious, strongly flavored liquid which are used in the preparation of various dishes such as soups, sauces, gravy, stews, curries, braising, rice and cold dishes. They are used in all cuisines for example in Indian cuisine yakhni stock is used in making biryani, curries etc. Stocks are also base (foundation) of any western cooking. Most commonly, it is used to make soups and sauces; but the usage is not just limited to this. White stocks are used in preparations of white sauces and clear soups, while brown stock are used in brown sauces, red meat stews, and braised dishes. Stocks can also be used to prepare certain rice dishes such as paella and biryani.

CARE AND PRECAUTIONS WHILE MAKING STOCK-

A.    Unsound meat or bones and decaying vegetables will give stock an unpleasant flavour and cause it to deteriorate quickly.

B.     Scum should be removed; otherwise it will boil into the stock and spoil the colour and flavor.

C.     Fat should be skimmed, otherwise the stock will taste greasy.

D.    Stock should always simmer gently, for if it is allowed to boil quickly, it will evaporate and go cloudy.

E.     It should not be allowed to go off the boil, otherwise, in hot weather, there is a danger of its going sour.

F.      Salt should not be added to stock.

G.    When making chicken stock, if raw bones are not available, then a boiling fowl can be used.

H.    If stock is to be kept, strain, reboil, cool quickly and place in the refrigerator.

I.       In case of fish stock use heads of fish as it results in good flavoured stock.

J.       Saute the fish bones with mirepoix in very little amount of butter as this will bring out the flavour.

K.    In case of chicken stock use neck and carcass of chicken as it results in a good stock.

L.     Stock should be stored in a refrigerator or cold place.

M.   Marrow must be removed and used as separate dish (marrow toast) or as a garnish.